The Making of Modern India: The History of India from the Middle Ages to Independence from Britain

India has been the location of many different empires throughout its long history. The Indus Valley Civilization was home to one of the world’s first civilizations more than 5,000 years ago, which was followed by the Aryan-Vedic culture and then a host of other kingdoms that flourished across the Sub-Continent. India has also been the birthplace of many religions. The Vedic religion of the Aryans evolved into the Hindu religion, and Buddhism and Jainism were also born in India. By the Middle Ages, India was home to many different religions and ethnic groups, with dozens of languages being spoken, making India less of a single, unified country and more of a land of many countries. Despite India’s tradition of cultural and political pluralism, several rulers attempted to place the entire Sub-Continent under the rule of one dynasty or government with a dominant religion. Most of these would-be rulers were far from successful, although a few came close, setting the template for later conquerors.

The Delhi Sultanate was comprised of five dynasties that expanded their borders, and Islam, at sword point, but also through diplomacy and trade. The Delhi Sultanate became known as a state that welcomed the expertise of foreigners, no matter their religion, and promoted the welfare of its citizens through a host of social programs. Eventually, the Delhi Sultanate grafted ideas and inspiration from India’s pre-Islamic past with those of Islam to create a state that was quite unique and powerful. The Delhi sultans were themselves descended from Turks and brought with them ideas from Persia. Furthermore, as their empire grew, they invited scholars from throughout the Islamic world to their country, and as Muslim scholars, scientists, and administrators from the Near East made their way into India, the Delhi sultans also incorporated some of the cultural ideas of the native Hindu Indians to create a state that was as unique as any the world had ever seen. Thus, even though the Delhi Sultanate eventually collapsed, it was a gradual decline that took place after more than 300 years and left a lasting impact on the region.

The Mughals, a group with Turkish and Mongolian roots, also used gunpowder weapons to sweep into northern India, topple the existing Islamic dynasty in Delhi, and eventually subject most of India to their rule. The term “gunpowder empire” was originally coined by Russian scholar V. V. Bartold and popularized by American historians William McNeil and Marshall Hodgson in the mid-20th century to describe the Islamic Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires, which they claimed came to power through gunpowder. Although that core thesis has been challenged by historians in recent years, who argue that gunpowder weapons were a feature or result of the rise of these empires, not the cause for them, the term is still used (Streusand 2011, 3).

Beyond its obvious influence in areas like trade and commerce, the East India Company also served as a point of cultural contact between Western Europeans, South Asians, and East Asians. Quintessentially British practices such as tea drinking were made possible by East India Company trade. The products and cultural practices traveling back and forth on East India Company ships from one continent to another also reconfigured the way societies around the globe viewed sexuality, gender, class, and labor. On a much darker level, the East India Company fueled white supremacy and European concepts of Orientalism.

Ultimately, the East India Company’s activity across the Indian subcontinent led to further British involvement there, and the British Raj, a period of British dominance and rule over India that formally began in 1857 and lasted until 1947, remains a highly debated topic amongst historians, political scientists, the British people, and the people of modern India.